COMPUTERS IN TEACHING

Predicting Success in Online Psychology Courses: Self-Discipline and Motivation

Stefanie B. Waschull Athens Technical College

This article addresses factors associated with student success in on- line psychology courses. Prior to beginning an online course, stu- dents completed measures of self-discipline and motivation, time commitment, study skills, preference for text-based learning, access to technology, and technology experience. Schrum and Hong (2002) proposed that these student characteristics predict online course success. I used scores on these factors to predict student per- formance in online introductory psychology and online human growth and development courses. Self-discipline and motivation was the only factor predictive of online psychology course success. My results contradict the model proposed by Schrum and Hong but are consistent with research on the role of motivation in success.

During the past decade, distance education programs have proliferated (Council for Higher Education Accreditation, 1999). Many traditional colleges and universities added dis- tance education offerings to their programs. Furthermore, new, private, for-profit institutions began offering competi- tive distance education programs.

There is considerable research comparing the effective- ness of distance education and online courses to traditional courses (Beare, 1989; Fox, 1998; McKissack, 1997; Sonner, 1999; Waschull, 2001). The general consensus is that there are no significant differences in effectiveness between dis- tance learning and traditional learning techniques. In an early study, Beare (1989) compared the effectiveness of vid- eotape, audiotape, and telelectures to traditional courses and found no significant differences in student grades. More recently, McKissack (1997) showed that distance education students from a variety of colleges and universities did not differ from traditional students at those institutions on grade point average. Waschull (2001) compared students in online introductory psychology courses with similar stu- dents in traditional courses and found that the two groups did not differ in terms of test performance. Furthermore, Fox (1998) surveyed the research on distance education and found no empirical studies that indicated distance edu- cation students were deficient in skills compared to tradi- tional students.

However, providing online distance education in an in- creasingly competitive environment raises important issues. There is a risk that institutions may focus on the mechanics of providing online courses to as many students as possible

without adequate consideration of the pedagogical sound- ness of online materials or the reality of whether students are equipped to perform successfully in online courses. For example, Bonk and Dennen (1999) pointed out that popu- lar Web-based courseware programs primarily provide ad- ministrative tools for faculty to post lectures notes and quizzes, provide Web links, and deliver assignments. Bonk and Dennen concluded these administrative tools do little to support student critical thinking or help students gener- ate knowledge.

In an effort to address such concerns, Schrum and Hong (2002) identified organizational, pedagogical, institutional, and student factors they believed were related to the suc- cess of online courses. They provided students with a sub- stantive needs assessment at more than 30 institutions that offered postsecondary online learning opportunities. Based on their analysis, Schrum and Hong identified seven critical factors believed to be related to student success in the on- line environment: personal traits such as self-discipline, life- style factors such as adequate free time to commit to the course, motivation to perform well in the course, strong study skills, a preference for text-based learning, reliable ac- cess to technology, and technology experience prior to the course. Schrum and Hong proposed that the seven student characteristics are valid predictors of student success based on an analysis of existing measures and the opinions of in- structors. Ratings provided by experienced online instruc- tors indicated that they agreed that access to technology and experience with technology were important for student success. Experienced instructors also agreed that adequate time commitment and preference for text-based learning were important, and most instructors agreed that motiva- tion was an important factor in determining success. Gen- erally, the experienced online instructors did not identify study skills and personal characteristics as important for student success. Despite the low ratings given to study skills and personal characteristics, instructors frequently com- mented that self-discipline was one of the most important factors for determining student success. Although the opin- ions of experienced online instructors give useful insight into the importance of these characteristics, I was inter- ested in establishing the reliability of the factors identified by Schrum and Hong and determining whether they were predictive of student success in online psychology courses.

190 Teaching of Psychology

Method

Materials

I developed an online questionnaire designed to measure the seven student characteristics: personal traits, lifestyle fac- tors, motivation, study skills, a preference for text-based learning, access to technology, and technology experience. I developed 23 items to measure these characteristics—3 or 4 items for each factor. I based several of the items on questions developed by Schrum (2003) to help students determine if they were ready to take an online course. Items addressed the degree to which students were able to meet the demands of an online course. For example, I asked students whether they could devote 10 to 20 hr a week to the course, whether they found classroom discussions helpful, and whether they had the required computer technology. Items asked participants to rate the degree to which they agreed or disagreed that the item described them using a scale from 1 (I agree completely) to 5 (I disagree completely).

Participants and Procedure

Participants were either enrolled in one of two sections of online introductory psychology or in one section of online human growth and development. During the first week of the academic quarter students completed the questionnaire on- line. I sent a follow-up e-mail to those students who did not complete the questionnaire within 24 hr. Participation was voluntary. I asked 86 students to participate; 57 (66%) com- pleted the questionnaire. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 46; 88% were White, 12% were African American, and 75% were women.

Results

Participation and Attrition

The frequency of withdrawals was not different for stu- dents who completed the questionnaire when compared to students enrolled in the three online sections, χ2(1, N = 57) = .001, p > .05. Furthermore, the distribution of race and sex was similar for the students enrolled in the online courses with those who completed the questionnaire: race, χ2(1, N = 57) = .004, p > .05; sex, χ2(1, N = 57) = .17, p > .05. The mean age of those who completed the questionnaire (M = 24.01, SD = 7.41) was not significantly different than the mean age of students enrolled in the online courses (M = 24.18, SD = 7.23), t(57) = .02, p > .05.

Reliability

I summed items reflecting each of the seven characteristics to form subscales and conducted a reliability analysis. I elimi- nated nine items from subscales and from the overall measure because the coefficient alpha was higher without the item.

There were a total of six subscales: (a) self-discipline/motiva- tion (SD/MOT)—“I usually meet all my deadlines,” “I am able to exercise self-discipline,” and “I am highly motivated to do well in my online course,” coefficient α = .49; (b) ade- quate time commitment (TIME)—“I can devote 10 to 20 hr a week to my online course,” “The extra demands of my edu- cation place a strain on my relationships at home or at work,” coefficient α = .47; (c) study skills (SS)—“I feel I can learn well on my own,” “Sometimes I think I know the material but then I don’t do well on the test,” coefficient α= .58; (d) pref- erence for text-based learning (TEXT PREF)—“I have good reading comprehension,” “I need to hear something repeated before I remember it well,” “I often need to ask an instructor to repeat directions or explain some aspect of an assignment,” coefficient α= .54; (e) access to technology (TEC ACC)—“I have access to a computer that can access the Internet almost all the time in my home,” “I can access e-mail almost anytime in my home,” coefficient α = .91; (f) technology experience (TEC EX)—“I can download new software programs for my computer,” “Learning new technology is not my idea of fun,” coefficient α = .44. Note that I combined the subscales of self-discipline and motivation. The coefficient alpha for the motivation subscale was .24 and the coefficient alpha for self- discipline was .33. One item from the motivation subscale combined with the two items on the self-discipline subscale produced a coefficient alpha of .49. This combination was ap- propriate because self-discipline and motivation were the only two personality factors on the measure.

Online Course Performance

The four measures of online course performance were test score average, assignment average, final exam score, and final course average. Tests consisted of about 50 multiple-choice questions and two or three essays, assignments were two- to three-page papers about topics covered in the course, and the final exam was a cumulative test with 60 to 70 multiple- choice items. I did not include the lowest test score and the lowest assignment score in the final average. To determine the final course average, I weighted the test and assignment grades by .8 and final exam grade by .2.

Table 1 shows that, of the six subscales, only self- discipline/motivation was significantly correlated with test score average, r(55) = .44, p < .001; assignment score aver- age, r(55) = .29, p < .05; final exam score, r(55) = .36, p < 01; and final course average, r(55) = .43, p < .001. Three of the measures were nonoverlapping measures of student per- formance (test score average, assignment average, final exam score), whereas final course average was an aggregate of the other measures and was included to serve as an overall indi- cator of students’ performance. Not surprisingly, participants’ scores on the measures were correlated.

Discussion

Based on the first-order correlations, six of the seven factors proposed by Schrum and Hong (2002) did not appear to be correlated with course performance. Only self-discipline/moti-

Vol. 32, No. 3, 2005 191

vation significantly correlated with test score average, assign- ment average, final exam score, and final course average.

These results raise several important issues. First, because the efficacy of the measure for predicting success in online psychology courses was the subject of exploration, I retained subscales with low alphas in these exploratory analyses. My findings are preliminary until confirmed using measures with greater reliability. If the measures had greater reliability, fac- tors other than self-discipline/motivation might also predict online course success. Second, it is interesting to note that factors such as access to technology and technology experi- ence did not relate to online course performance but self- discipline did. These findings are not consistent with Schrum and Hong’s (2002) claim that technology experience and ac- cess are important for online course success. On the other hand, these results are not surprising in light of the widely ac- cepted contention that motivation plays an important role in student success (Dweck, 1986; Elliot & Dweck, 1988). These results raise questions about whether the factors predicting online course success are any different than factors that pre- dict success in regular psychology courses. Indeed, the possi- bility that factors predicting success in online courses are not different than factors predicting success in traditional courses is consistent with the finding that student performance in distance education courses is not significantly different than in traditional courses (Beare, 1989; Fox, 1998; McKissack, 1997; Sonner, 1999; Waschull, 2001). I intend to address the comparable role of self-discipline/motivation in online and traditional courses in further research.

References

Beare, P. L. (1989). The comparative effectiveness of videotape, audiotape, and telecture in delivering continuing teacher edu-

cation. The American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 57–66.

Bonk, C. J., & Dennen, V. (1999). Learner issues with WWW-based systems. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 5, 401–417.

Council for Higher Education Accreditation. (1999). Distance learn- ing in higher education. CHEA Update, 2. Retrieved January 5, 2005, from http://www.chea.org/Commentary/distance-learning/ distance-learning-2.cfm

Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040–1048.

Elliot, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988). Goals: An approach to motiva- tion and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 5–12.

Fox, J. (1998). Distance education: Is it good enough? The University Concourse, 3(4), 3–5.

McKissack, C. E. (1997). A comparative study of grade point aver- age (GPA) between the students in the traditional classroom set- ting and the distance learning classroom setting in selected colleges and universities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(8), 3039A. (UMI No. ABA98–06343)

Schrum, L. (2003). Student online readiness tool. Retrieved July 14, 2004, from http://www.alt.usg.edu/sort/

Schrum, L., & Hong, S. (2002). Dimensions and strategies for online success: Voices from experienced educators. Journal of Asynchron- ous Learning Networks, 6(1), 57–67.

Sonner, B. (1999). Success in the capstone business course—As- sessing the effectiveness of distance learning. Journal of Education for Business, 74, 243–248.

Waschull, S. B. (2001). The online delivery of psychology courses: Attrition, performance, and evaluation. Teaching of Psychology, 28, 143–146.

Note

Send correspondence to Stefanie B. Waschull, Athens Technical College, 800 Highway 29 North, Athens, GA 30601; e-mail: swaschull@athenstech.edu.

192 Teaching of Psychology

Table 1. Intercorrelations Between Student Characteristics and Performance

Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Test average — .63* .55** .83** .44** .06 –.05 –.16 –.03 .10 2. Assignment average — — .25 .55** .29* –.05 –.14 –.27 –.12 .14 3. Final exam — — — .77** .36** –.08 .03 –.01 .01 .19 4. Final average — — — — .43** .01 –.08 –.10 .04 .15 5. SD/MOT — — — —– — .06 .06 .20 .14 .36** 6. TEC EX — — — — — — –.27* .16 .10 .03 7. TEC ACC — — — — — — — .09 –.07 .21 8. TEXT PREF — — — — — — — — .32* .24 9. SS — — — — — — — — — .03

10. TIME — — — — — — — — — —

Note. SD/MOT = self-discipline/motivation; TEC EX = technology expertise; TEC ACC = access to technology; TEXT PREF = preference for text- based learning; SS = study skills; TIME = adequate time commitment. *p < .05. **p < .01.

EDUCAUSE QUARTERLY • Number 1 200762

G O O D I D E A S

More and more, adult learn-ers are finding the conve-nience and flexibility of online learning a match for their learn- ing goals and busy lifestyles. Online degree programs, courses, and virtual universities targeting adult learners have proliferated in the past decade. Although students can easily locate an online course or degree program that’s both convenient and accessible, they may face significant challenges in developing a new set of skills for this type of instruction.

Educators have speculated on the development of student skills neces- sary to succeed in online learning, but relatively few publications cover the topic from the perspective of suc- cessful online students. I developed the study summarized here to provide this perspective and to identify useful strategies that instructors can promote in their online courses.

Methodology The study began with the devel-

opment of a set of questions that emerged from a group of online course designers, faculty, and administrators I consulted for ideas. The question set was reviewed and edited by a larger group of faculty and administrators, and an online survey instrument was developed.

Participants for this study were selected from a list of graduates who had earned their degrees by taking

80 percent or more of their courses exclusively online. Students achieving a 3.50 cumulative grade point aver- age or better were invited to partici- pate in the study. Of the 93 students invited to participate, 59 did so. Survey answers were open-ended, allowing respondents to describe online learn- ing techniques they found useful and to tell the stories of their experiences as online students.1

Successful Online Students Identify Seven Tips

Students responding to the survey agreed on a number of practical steps that helped them succeed in their online courses:

1. Develop a time-management strategy. Students were asked what time-

management strategies they found most helpful. One challenge facing an online

How Students Develop Online Learning Skills Successful online students share their secrets for getting the most from online classes, focusing on time management, active participation, and practice By Alan R. Roper

Number 1 2007 • EDUCAUSE QUARTERLY 63

student is the self-discipline required to devote adequate time to class in courses that might not have regularly scheduled times to meet synchronously online or in person. Most students found that establishing their own schedules for class time helped them ensure enough time for class participation. One student commented,

Setting and staying to specific study days was one factor that worked for me. For example, in the evenings, throughout the week, I read my lessons. Saturdays were generally reserved for writing assignments. Saturdays were also devoted to responding to other online postings and building on what I had already submitted.

Another student stated that designat- ing specific times to read, complete writ- ten assignments, and post dialogue to other students proved helpful. Students also emphasized the need to create a schedule that gave them some flexibil- ity and wasn’t overwhelming. One stu- dent explained, “I was careful not to put too much pressure upon myself when completing a homework assignment. I found that doing a little bit here and there avoided trying to do too much all at once.” Developing a schedule that designates specific times to log in to and participate in class and to carry out other course-related activities such as reading and doing research promotes a student’s success as an online learner. Students identified the most helpful time-management strategies as setting a schedule for study time (78.9 percent) and devoting time daily to the course (31.6 percent).

A key difference between in-person and online learning is the independence and ability to participate in the online class at a time convenient to the student. This also presents a potential problem, as procrastination could cause a stu- dent to fall behind in the online course. The graduates who participated in the study were asked how they avoided this problem. A few students (15.8 percent) commented that logging in to their course portal every day and checking

for new postings or updates helped pre- vent them from falling behind. Other students (36.8 percent) commented that weekly assignments from the instructor kept them on a regular schedule in the course. One student explained,

You have to discipline yourself in maintaining your schedule and not allow any distractions to disrupt your plan. I would allow myself one hour of winding down from work, eat my dinner, and get to my study room. I found that if I put in about 3–4 hours of studying during the week, the weekly assignment would be completed by Thursday or Friday.

Another student stated that an upfront planning process was critical to succeed- ing in the online course because study- ing was integrated with many other responsibilities.

2. Make the most of online discussions. Student interaction mostly occurs

through an online threaded discussion that allows students and instructors to interact in asynchronous time. This is a significant shift for students accus- tomed to in-class discussions. It may provide opportunities for richer dis- course through written discussion that allows students to spend time crafting their responses. When asked how they made the most of their online interac- tion with other students, these students mentioned some interesting techniques. One student commented, “Interacting with the other students was the fun part

of my (online) classes. As much as possi- ble, I would post a response, question, or comment to another student’s posting. This built up an online relationship.” Another student suggested, “Respond to several student postings, but make sure you have something meaningful to add, don’t just say ‘good post.’ Also, don’t always interact with the same few classmates. Look for something to say with various students.”

Participating in threaded discussions helped 52.6 percent benefit most from interaction with their classmates, while reading the responses of others helped 15.8 percent. About 21 percent found e- mailing outside of the course platform a useful way to interact with their fellows.

The instructor’s role is important in encouraging class discussions online. A student explained, “Weekly discussions were best when the teacher encouraged it, especially by having pro versus con discussion, or asking ‘why’ or ‘how’ questions.” Instructors who establish clear expectations as to how threaded discussions are used or who ask spe- cific questions in response to student postings can expect to encourage richer online dialogue. Students who incorpo- rate a plan for regular communication with their classmates into their overall course schedule will have greater success in their online course.

3. Use it or lose it. One challenge some students face

when learning online is retention of the course content. Students surveyed agreed that finding a way to apply the concepts helped them retain the infor- mation. “I applied the ‘use-or-lose’ tech- nique. As soon as I’d read or study it, I put the knowledge to work through collaboration with students or at my place of employment.”

One way to apply these concepts goes back to the use of the online threaded discussion. Concepts can be interpreted and restated in each student’s own words in an active dialogue with others.

Another student commented that “applying the new material to what I already knew” was a helpful way to retain the material from the online course. Several successful online students

Instructors who establish

clear expectations as to

how threaded discussions

are used or who ask specific

questions in response

to student postings can

expect to encourage richer

online dialogue

EDUCAUSE QUARTERLY • Number 1 200764

mentioned that they retained what they read by developing a way to apply those concepts to a current or past experience, for example at work (31.6 percent). Just under half of the students (47.4 percent) explained that taking handwritten notes from the online text helped them retain essential points. One student explained that she “took notes from the book and micro lectures, just as if [I] were in a regular face-to-face course.”

4. Make questions useful to your learning. One student commented that “ask-

ing questions is integral to learning. By asking questions, fellow students and instructors would go deeper into the subject. Going deeper made the sub- ject matter more understandable.” The online course environment typically provides communication tools (such as threaded discussions, e-mail connec- tivity, and live chat) that students can use to ask in-depth questions. Students also can take the time to craft questions that may go beyond what they would ask in an in-person course, probing the subject with greater specificity. Another student explained,

Asking questions helped me to understand the material. I was a student that did not have experience in many [online] classes, but the other students did. Asking questions of some of the other students helped me understand the principles and practices professionals in the field face on a daily basis.

From the responses to this survey, successful online students spent time researching and crafting questions (21 percent) and making them clear and understandable (10.5 percent). They found thoughtful questions to be a valuable resource in support of their online learning experience, although 26.3 percent of their peers admitted they just asked questions.

5. Stay motivated. Without direct physical contact and

interaction with other learners or an instructor, online students can lose their interest or motivation mid-way through

their course or program. The graduates who participated in this study were asked what motivation techniques they found most helpful in preventing burn- out or loss of interest when studying online. As one student put it, “keeping your eye on the prize” is always help- ful. Another student commented, “The main motivator was envisioning myself in cap and gown, walking up and receiv- ing my degree, and having all my dear family and friends in attendance.”

Students also mentioned they find motivation in getting a good grade (21 percent) and in setting personal goals (42 percent). One student stated, “I always want to get an ‘A’ in every course I take. It doesn’t matter as much in graduate school as it did as an undergraduate, but it still motivates me.”

Some students took advantage of opportunities to work with other online students, using the encouragement and feedback they received from that con- nection to stay motivated (15.8 percent). One student explained, “I had a friend (in my online courses) that I teamed up with, and we tried hard to make sure we not only finished our assignments, but that we turned in only the highest quality work possible.”

Each individual may find something different that works for him or her in staying motivated. One student prom- ised to buy himself a new truck if he completed the degree. With a greater amount of work done independently in online courses, a new online student would be well advised to consider devel- oping personal techniques for staying engaged, specifically by creating a self- motivation plan.

6. Communicate the instruction techniques that work.

Instructors in online courses employ a variety of techniques aimed at engag- ing the learner. The participants in this study discussed some of the techniques that were most successful. One student commented, “I liked instructors who logged in often and asked a lot of ques- tions. Not only did this help to increase understanding of the subject, but it gave people the opportunity for class participation.” Another student added,

“One teacher went farther than I would expect, but I found his technique won- derful. He posted the initial question for discussion, and then asked us individual questions based on our answers.” This technique worked well with a variety of learners (42 percent). The instructor was able to craft questions that matched the students’ level of understanding of the material and provide online resources that helped them (15.7 percent).

7. Make connections with fellow students. The participants in this study had

the opportunity to share successful techniques and practices that helped them in developing their online stu- dent skills through some open-ended questions. One student mentioned that making a friend (connected with online) helped. Being part of a com- munity of learners is helpful in courses that are taught in-person, and the same holds true for online classes (15.8 per- cent). One student explained that “it made a huge difference when you had good students in the class.” Another student commented,

The experience was enriched greatly by the relationships and interaction with my fellow students. It amazes me how well we got to know each other even though we were often thousands of miles apart and were only virtual classmates.

I learned as much from other students and their experiences as I did from the instructors. I never expected that type of rewarding learning experience in a traditional classroom.

Using online threaded discussions in their course management system, the students can extend classroom discus- sions beyond the traditional boundar- ies of physical class time. Students in the online class may get to know one another more from recognizing the writ- ing style and expression of thoughts and ideas rather than by physical attributes. Many students develop meaningful con- nections with their online classmates that can translate into career network- ing opportunities later.

Number 1 2007 • EDUCAUSE QUARTERLY 65

Summary The responses of these successful

online students highlight several tech- niques instructors can use to help their students develop effective online learn- ing skills. Most important is a student’s ability to develop a time-management strategy to help manage course require- ments as an independent learner.

Students who participated in this study agreed that online discussions with fellow students and the instruc- tor are central to the learning expe- rience. Instructors can encourage students to develop techniques to make the most of online discussions, which may add to a student’s learn- ing experience and promote success in the online course. The instructor can also encourage students to apply concepts from the online course, or as one student described it, “use it or lose it,” to develop an ability to retain and synthesize course objectives.

The successful online students who participated in this study also agreed

on the importance of developing and asking thoughtful questions as a tech- nique to engage both fellow students and the instructor. As one student explained, this is a way to “go deeper into the subject” and that “going deeper makes the subject matter more understandable.”

Staying motivated in the class is a challenge for students studying inde- pendently. Students who develop a personal motivation strategy find it a great asset to the online learning expe- rience, one that can keep them from losing interest or burning out.

Another technique the successful online students in this study agree on is the importance of making a connec- tion with fellow students. Students who develop a meaningful connection with their fellows can receive and pro- vide support. The online connections also promote a sense of being a learner among other learners.

No magical formula guarantees suc- cess in online learning. One important

step for instructors teaching an online course is to recognize that a different set of student skills may be required for students to get good grades (indicating that they have achieved the desired understanding of the subject) and to get the most from an online course. The techniques identified by success- ful online students can promote a rich learning experience for other students and provide a foundation for them to develop these skills. Instructors can help them get there. e

Endnote 1. The percentages may be somewhat mis-

leading because this survey asked open- ended questions. A survey using Likert scale coding would focus responses into a few specified categories, thus produc- ing higher percentages.

Alan R. Roper (aroper@ggu.edu) is Director of Administration for CyberCampus and teaches online courses in the graduate business school at Golden Gate University in San Francisco.